Peasants vs. Priests: The Varendra Rebellion of 11th-Century Bengal That Shook the Pāla Dynasty

Hidden among Bengal’s riverine plains, the Varendra Rebellion erupted in the late 11th century as a dramatic assertion of peasant power against corrupt landlords and weak royal authority. Often linked to the Kaivarta community, this revolt exposed deep fractures in the Pāla dynasty’s rule, reshaped land policies, and inspired later movements for justice and autonomy.

The World of 11th-Century Varendra

Varendra—today’s northern Bengal—lay at the confluence of rivers, fertile for rice cultivation yet prone to floods. By the mid-1000s CE, the Pāla kings struggled to maintain control over distant provinces. Provincial samantas (feudal chiefs) and powerful Brahmin landlords grew wealthy on high taxes, while peasants sank into debt under crushing revenue demands. This era saw grand temple platforms and administrative centres built in a Persian-influenced style, signaling royal prestige even as the monarchy’s power waned on the ground .

Meanwhile, land grants to Brahmins and the rise of new zamīndārs who cleared forests created a patchwork of landholders. Traditional village assemblies lost authority, and peasants felt increasingly isolated. Monsoon floods washed away rice fields; yet tax collectors offered no relief. The stage was set for widespread unrest.

Roots of Resentment: Economic Pressures

The backbone of Varendra’s economy was its peasantry. Yearly tilling of paddy fields yielded the region’s prosperity—but at a steep cost. Royal edicts demanded up to one-third of the harvest in land revenue. Local intermediaries, known as mandaleshvaras, often extorted additional levies, using threats of imprisonment or property seizure to enforce payments. Already struggling families fell deeper into debt when failed crops or floods struck.

A fragment of the Manasollasa chronicle recounts a landlord’s seizure of a widow’s cattle for slight arrears, igniting village outrage . Peasant assemblies, once consultative bodies, offered no recourse. Economic misery thus became the spark for rebellion.

Social Upheaval: Rising Kaivarta and Samanta Power

Beyond peasants, local samantas and emerging Kaivarta landholders chafed under weakened Pāla oversight. The Kaivartas—originally fishermen by caste—had, over generations, secured land grants and formed their own chieftaincies. As their wealth grew, they demanded status equal to older elites. Royal favour, however, remained elusive.

These newly empowered groups felt abandoned when the central court failed to protect them from abusive landlords. Instead, the Pāla bureaucracy appeared to side with Brahmins. Ambitious samantas saw both a chance to check oppressive landlords and to carve independent domains, planting the seed of a wider revolt.

The Spark: A Peasant Revolt Turns Political

According to the 12th-century poem Varendra Vilasa, the rebellion ignited in early 1075 CE when a particularly rapacious landlord doubled a village’s revenue demand. Peasants refused; he seized their cattle. Under moonlight and hammering rain, villagers armed with sickles, spears, and farming knives stormed his granary, freed animals, and distributed grain to hungry neighbours .

Word spread swiftly along river routes. Peasant militias formed, pledging to resist further extortion. By spring, thousands had joined—peasants, Kaivarta chieftains, and defected samantas alike. Their banners bore symbols of rice sheaves and fishing nets, reflecting both agrarian and Kaivarta identities.

Phase One: Seizing Local Forts

The rebellion’s early triumph came at Baruva Fort, the stronghold of a Pāla appointee. Rebel leader Sankha—described in later lore as “chieftain of the riverfolk”—led a dawn assault. Using small boats under cover of fog, rebels landed inside the fort’s rear gate, overwhelming the surprised garrison. The fall of Baruva sent shockwaves through Varendra’s landholding elite.

Rebels seized weapons: swords, shields, and even war elephants from the Pāla armouries. Anecdotes tell of peasants ambushing supply caravans, distributing loot among the rural poor. Such acts, while violent, cemented popular support and forced nearby landlords to negotiate or flee.

Phase Two: Confrontation with Royal Forces

King Mahipala II could not ignore the challenge. Initial envoy missions to parley ended in massacre when messengers were ambushed near Tungi village. In late 1075, Mahipala marshalled a force of 15,000 soldiers, including cavalry and archers drawn from neighbouring provinces . At Ugranarayanpur fields, royal troops met rebels in pitched battle.

Despite superior armour, Pāla forces struggled. Peasants employed guerrilla tactics—night raids, riverine ambushes, and hits on supply lines. King Mahipala’s archers found it hard to target rebels hidden among tall paddy stalks. After days of fighting and heavy losses on both sides, royal commanders paused to negotiate, fearing wider revolt.

Negotiation and Concessions: A New Order

Mahipala’s envoys offered amnesty and tax relief in exchange for loyalty. Key rebel leaders—including Sankha and Bisana—were granted formal titles, merging them into the Pāla feudal order. Land revenue assessments were revised downward by nearly 20% in Varendra .

This compromise reflected realpolitik: Mahipala needed stability more than punishing peasants. Brahmin landlords were compelled to uphold dharma—righteous conduct under Hindu law—and faced royal censure if they abused power again. The uprising thus yielded concrete reforms in land policy and elite accountability.

Shifting Power Dynamics

Shortly after the rebellion, Varendra witnessed a decentralization of Pāla power. While Mahipala retained the throne, downstream regions like East Bengal enjoyed greater autonomy. Kaivarta chiefs secured hereditary rights. These changes slowed the Pāla resurgence and contributed to the dynasty’s eventual fragmentation by the early 12th century.

The Sena dynasty’s rise from Odisha in 1126 CE succeeded where the Pālas faltered. Yet even as Bengal’s rulers changed, the memory of Varendra’s peasant coalition inspired later land‐rights movements under both Hindu and Muslim regimes.

Cultural Memory and Folklore

Within rural Bengal, the Varendra Rebellion lived on in ballads and folk tales. In villages along the Atrayā and Punarbhaba rivers, storytellers recounted how a simple tiller—“Sankha of the scythe”—stood unarmed before armoured knights. Annual fairs featured plays reenacting the granary raid and Baruva Fort’s fall. Peasant collectives invoked this legacy when petitioning for fairer land assessments under Mughals and, later, the British .

In modern times, Bengali poets like Rabindranath Tagore referenced Varendra’s spirit of revolt in lines celebrating the commoner’s courage. The rebellion thus transcended its medieval origins to become a symbol of popular rights.

Lessons for Today

The Varendra Rebellion offers enduring insights:

• Economic Justice: When fiscal policies cripple livelihoods, social order collapses.

• Inclusive Governance: Integrating local leaders into official structures can defuse conflict.

• Cultural Resilience: Folklore preserves collective memory, guiding future generations toward justice.

These principles resonate in contemporary agrarian movements worldwide, from India’s farmers’ protests to Latin America’s land reforms.

Looking Ahead

Scholars continue to unearth Varendra’s layers. Archaeological digs at Baruva reveal charred bricks and weapon fragments. Inscriptions identified by the Archaeological Survey of India confirm Mahipala’s tax remission decree. Further studies on peasant networks aim to map early medieval rural alliances.

By revisiting Varendra, historians bridge past and present—reminding us that, even in distant centuries, ordinary people wielded extraordinary power when united for a just cause.